<ul><li>After numerous cancellations India’s second mission to the Moon, Chandrayaan-2, is scheduled for July, this year </li><li>If the satellite is successfully launched as scheduled, Chandrayaan-2 will reach the Moon by September 6. </li><li>The Chandrayaan-2 mission consists of three modules — the Orbiter, the Lander and the Rover. </li></ul>The <a href="https://www.isro.gov.in/update/01-may-2019/press-release-chandrayaan-2">Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)</a> is pegging the launch of its second lunar mission, Chandrayaan-2, between July 9 and July 19 after having <a href="https://www.businessinsider.in/indiainsider/chandrayaan-2-delay-in-past-nine-years/slidelist/68737941.cms">cancelled the mission four times</a> in the past. Should the satellite successfully take off within that window, it will land on the Moon around September 6 — roughly two months after its launch from Earth. <div type="ExtQuote" text="After launch into earth bound orbit by GSLV MK-2I, the integrated module will reach the Moon orbit using Orbiter propulsion module." auname="ISRO statement"></div>

 After taking off from Earth, on board the GSLV Mk 2I launcher, a Lander — named Vikram — on board Chandrayaan-2 will make a soft landing on the Moon’s surface. <div type="ExtQuote" text="Subsequently, Lander will separate from the Orbiter and soft land at the predetermined site close to lunar South Pole. Further, the Rover will roll out for carrying out scientific experiments on the lunar surface." auname="ISRO statement"></div>

 Vikram was actually <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/damage-to-moon-lander-delays-chandrayaan-2/articleshow/68714029.cms">one of the reasons</a> behind the latest delay of the India’s second lunar mission. Its legs underwent exertion during a during a ‘Lander Drop Test’ making the team consider strengthening them to compensate for the <a href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/indias-2nd-lunar-mission-on-january-3-with-lander-rover/articleshow/65376670.cms">addition</a> 600kg put on to stabilize the satellite. When the Chandrayaan-2 was last delayed after it missed the planned January-February window, K. Sivan — <keyword id="6358064" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="20" keywordseo="isro">ISRO</keyword> Chairman — said that the launch would take place April-end orJune, at the latest. Come May, the latest update is that Chandrayaan-2 will finally take to the Moon in July provided there aren’t anymore ‘technical glitches’ or ‘missed windows’. See also: <a href="https://www.businessinsider.in/isros-moon-mission-chandrayaan-2-halted-yet-again/articleshow/68737760.cms" style="">India's second mission to the moon has been halted for the sixth time</a> <a href="https://www.businessinsider.in/india-beats-its-own-record-to-build-the-worlds-lightest-satellite-nasa-to-launch-it-soon/articleshow/64797350.cms" style="">India beats its own record to build the world’s lightest satellite, NASA to launch it soon</a> <a href="https://www.businessinsider.in/india-is-spending-1-4-billion-on-a-space-trip-and-there-are-bigger-plans-involved/articleshow/65591318.cms" style="">India is spending $1.4 billion on a space trip and there are bigger plans involved</a>

India’s second lunar mission pegged to launch in July

<ul><li>A study published by the Proceedings of the <keyword id="112679" type="COMPANY" weightage="20" keywordseo="National-Academy-of-Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</keyword> has found definitive evidence of the ice <keyword id="15300" type="ENTERTAINMENT" weightage="20" keywordseo="Water">water</keyword> on the surface of the <keyword id="42440" type="LOCATION" weightage="20" keywordseo="Moon">moon</keyword>. </li><li>Researchers used images from <keyword id="6360409" type="COMPANY" weightage="20" keywordseo="Nasa">NASA</keyword>’s <keyword id="108601" type="PERSON" weightage="20" keywordseo="Moon-Mineralogy-Mapper">moon mineralogy mapper</keyword> that was aboard <keyword id="3658" type="LOCATION" weightage="20" keywordseo="India">India</keyword>’s <keyword id="45502" type="PERSON" weightage="20" keywordseo="Chandrayaan-1">Chandrayaan-1</keyword>. </li><li>While there is potential for the future, the picture is not quite as rosy as it seems. </li></ul>It’s been long speculated that there is water present on the moon, but now a team of researchers from various US universities including the NASA <keyword id="456925" type="COMPANY" weightage="20" keywordseo="Ames-Research-Center">Ames Research Center</keyword> have found <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2018/08/14/1802345115" data-type="tilCustomLink" target="_blank">‘direct and definitive evidence’</a> that it, in fact, exists on the surface of the moon itself. This development comes from studying the infrared measurements taken by NASA’s moon mineralogy mapper that was abroad India’s lunar orbiter, the Chandrayaan-1. The measurements spell-out the telltale signature for the existence of frozen water on the moon. While this discovery may be significant for future manned expeditions and mining for water on the moon, there are certain terms and conditions that should be kept in mind. Moon mud While the paper published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences does provide evidence of water, it doesn’t necessarily mean that the water is in abundance. What are being called ‘cold traps’ are essentially 30% water mixed in with a whole lot of dirt. So, at the end of the day, it’s moon mud. And, working backwards from that, of all the cold traps that were observed only around 3.5% even showed any ice exposure. So, it’s not like there’s a lot of it on the surface. That being said, the spectral features also confirm that there’s a lot more of it underground. Observations show that water ice is trapped below the surface and accumulates specifically where the sun never shines, next to the poles. Even when water was discovered on Mercury and Ceres, it was found in cold traps where the topographic depressions on their poles were as such that they were permanently blocked off from the sun. The lack of sunlight, in the moon’s case, means that temperatures don’t rise above 110 Kelvin (K). To put that in perspective, 0 K translates to -273.15 degrees Celcius. The potential ahead At the end of the day, it’s not all gloom and doom. The discovery is significant to drive forward more exploration to the moon. In fact, India and China are already moving ahead with their programs. The former has the Chandrayaan-II mission that, despite its many delays, is set to launch in January 2019. The latter is planning a December launch to explore the dark side of the moon.

Evidence of water on moon’s surface, but terms and conditions apply

<keyword id="6360409" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="20" keywordseo="Nasa">NASA</keyword> is looking for private companies from around the world that can grab lunar dirt and rocks, setting off the process of creating a new marketplace for space resources. Outlining its goal, the <keyword id="106731" type="ORGANIZATION" weightage="20" keywordseo="US-space-agency">US space agency</keyword> has said that it aims to complete the retrieval and transfer of ownership of the resources before 2024. NASA has set the goal of landing the first American woman and next man on the Moon by 2024. And it is not just one company that the US space agency is looking to purchase lunar resources from. "The solicitation creates a full and open competition, not limited to US companies, and the agency may make one or more awards," <keyword id="1901198" type="PERSON" weightage="20" keywordseo="NASA-administrator">NASA Administrator</keyword> <keyword id="4956577" type="PERSON" weightage="20" keywordseo="Jim-Bridenstine">Jim Bridenstine</keyword> wrote in a blog post on Thursday. As per the requirements outlined by NASA, a company will collect a small amount of Moon "dirt" or rocks from any location on the lunar surface, provide imagery to the agency of the collection and the collected material, along with data that identifies the collection location. They will then have to conduct an "in-place" transfer of ownership of the lunar regolith or rocks to NASA. After ownership transfer, the collected material will become the sole property of NASA for its use. "NASA's payment is exclusively for the lunar regolith, with any awardee receiving 10 percent at award, 10 per cent upon launch, and the remaining 80 per cent upon successful completion," Bridenstine said, adding that the agency will determine retrieval methods for the transferred lunar regolith at a later date. According to a report in The Verge, NASA is ready to pay between $15,000 and $25,000 for the resources. The amount appears to be quite meagre considering the cost required to send a spacecraft to the Moon, but the idea here is to start the process of creating a lunar marketplace, said the report. Industry group Commercial Spaceflight Federation has welcomed NASA's decision. "We applaud @NASA's announcement to buy extracted lunar resources from commercial as another step towards a sustainable return to the Moon," the federation said in a tweet on Thursday. The NASA Administrator said that when considering such proposals to buy lunar resources from private companies, the agency will require that "all actions be taken in a transparent fashion, in full compliance with the Registration Convention, Article II and other provisions of the Outer Space Treaty, and all of our other international obligations." "We are putting our policies into practice to fuel a new era of exploration and discovery that will benefit all of humanity," Bridenstine said. SEE ALSO: <a href="https://www.businessinsider.in/science/space/news/isro-doubles-down-on-startups-and-msme-for-space-technology-launches-seed-program-and-reviews-over-200-applications-under-arise-mission/articleshow/78037431.cms">ISRO doubles down on startups and MSME for space technology — launches SEED program and reviews over 200 applications under ARISE mission</a> <a href="https://www.businessinsider.in/science/space/news/isro-wholeheartedly-invites-the-private-sector-to-make-india-a-global-technology-powerhouse/articleshow/76618927.cms">ISRO 'wholeheartedly' invites the private sector to make India a 'global technology powerhouse'</a> <a href="https://www.businessinsider.in/science/space/news/isro-may-quietly-gain-a-cost-advantage-despite-the-delay-in-gaganyaan-and-chandrayaan-3-says-an-expert/articleshow/75546034.cms">ISRO may quietly gain a cost advantage despite the delay in Gaganyaan and Chandrayaan 3, says an expert</a>

NASA wants to create a marketplace to buy and sell lunar dirt from private companies

With the creation of the Indian National Committee for Space Research (now ISRO) in 1962, India has been an active patron to mankind’s space efforts. From Aryabhata to Chandrayaan-2, India has launched 113 satellites, including the <keyword id="6374683" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="20" keywordseo="First">first</keyword> privately built and funded satellite ExceedSat-1 which was launched from USA, as a part of <keyword id="6355315" type="PERSON" weightage="20" keywordseo="elon-musk">Elon Musk</keyword>’s Space X project Falcon-9. Up until 2016, India’s space activities have been the exclusive domain of the State, however, the launch of the <keyword id="4835931" type="PERSON" weightage="20" keywordseo="IRNSS-1H">IRNSS-1H</keyword> in 2017 was the herald of a new era in India’s Space endeavours. The IRNSS-1H marked the beginning of privatisation in this area by being the first Indian satellite, to be designed in collaboration with the private parties. In the following year, the ExseedSat-1 was to become the first privately funded and built satellite launched in collaboration with the private Space X project. Interestingly, up until now, all missions have been conducted for purposes of research, reconnaissance as well as for augmenting communication systems since there was a substantial State monopoly. With the recent announcement of the creation of the Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre or IN-SPACe by the Government of India as part of its atma nirbhar Bharat scheme, which aims at providing a “level playing field” and a supportive regulatory regime to allow Indian private enterprises to grow and carve their own niche in the so-called “fast-growing global space sector”, India has in fact shown an inclination to capitalise on the US strategy of opening up the avidly touted space “sector” to private participation. While the initiative sounds exhilarating and will definitely go a long way in defining India’s image as an emerging global technology powerhouse, it is extremely difficult to fathom why private players, would be willing to readily come forward and invest billions, by confining their activities for research purposes alone, without any expectation of commercial gains or simply, return on their investment. This is so because, matters concerning space and space exploration are subject of a special branch of customary international law, that are mainly centred around five treaties and eleven agreements. The most significant of these is the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies or the Outer Space Treaty (OST) which India ratified in 1967, and which specifically lays down under Article I that outer space and space exploration including that on the moon and other celestial bodies, are to be carried out solely for, and in the interest of all countries, and that they are the province of all mankind. Article II restricts claims of sovereignty and national appropriation by any means whatsoever, Article VI places international responsibility on all activities carried on by governmental or by non-governmental entities, as well as mandates authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party. While there is considerable debate surrounding the applicability of the OST especially Article VI to private parties, since the US Supreme Court ‘s ruling in Medellin v Texas (2008) which held that Article VI is not self-executing in nature, regard must be had to the fact that these are domestic Court rulings and the fact that Space law is part of Customary International law which is affirmed by decades of State practise, cannot be denied, and neither can the fact that it is settled principle of international law that a State cannot, under the excuse of changes in domestic law, including subsequent Court rulings, renege from treaty obligations once ratified. In effect, the OST places strict checks upon the objectives behind exploring this uncharted territory by State and Non-State actors, far less allowing the possibility of even claiming rights of any kind. Moreover, it is no secret that private corporations operate predominantly with the object of individual gains and unless driven by the zeal to serve mankind and share profits with all countries, chances are that the investments made by private parties will have little to nil returns, far less any substantive protection. Also, the marked absence of a designated “Space Police” to patrol and check exploitative behaviour arising out of private activities owing to the presence of Article IV makes any form of substantive protection offered by States to private equity outside the Kármán line, ineffective. These are some of the many challenges apart from concerns regarding contamination of space including <keyword id="943402" type="PERSON" weightage="20" keywordseo="Space-Debris">space debris</keyword>, that will require extensive deliberations by the Indian Government unless it wants to face a fusillade of criticisms as well as expose itself to the risk of multiple treaty breach claims and possible sanctions from UN as well as its member States. Therefore, unless carefully planned and executed in collaboration with other State actors and under a highly controlled yet a pragmatic regime, that can ensure a balance between the needs of private investment and obligations posed by the OST, India’s space ambitions for the moment appear to be anachronistic and as surrealistic as the flying ambitions of Icarus and Daedalus. (This article was written by Nilanjan Sen, who is an experienced lawyer, specialising in International Law and Arbitration. His views are personal.) SEE ALSO: <a href="https://www.businessinsider.in/science/health/news/coovid-vaccine-from-oxford-serum-institute-and-astrazeneca-shows-promising-immune-response/articleshow/77069321.cms">The COVID-19 vaccine from Oxford and AstraZeneca shows 'promising' results in early human trials</a> <a href="https://www.businessinsider.in/entertainment/news/dil-bechara-kissing-booth-2-and-other-movies-you-can-watch-on-netflix-amazon-prime-disneyhotstar-this-week/slidelist/77142498.cms">Dil Bechara, Kissing Booth 2 and other movies you can watch on Netflix, Amazon Prime, Disney+Hotstar this week</a> <a href="https://www.businessinsider.in/business/startups/news/work-from-home-effect-these-companies-are-shelling-out-for-employees-power-bills-internet-cost-and-more/articleshow/77139229.cms">WFH effect – These companies are paying for employees' power bills, internet cost and more</a>

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India’s second lunar mission pegged to launch in July

Prabhjote Gill

Evidence of water on moon’s surface, but terms and conditions apply

Prabhjote Gill

NASA wants to create a marketplace to buy and sell lunar dirt from private companies

IANS

OPINION| The fault in our stars: India’s bid at privatizing space

Guest Author